Who lives in the UK

England holds about 84 per cent of the UK population in about 53 per cent of its land area, which makes it one of the most densely populated large countries in Europe at roughly 434 people per square kilometre. Scotland, with a third of the UK's land area, holds about 8 per cent of its people.

Greater London is the largest concentration at roughly 8.9 million, followed by the West Midlands, Greater Manchester and West Yorkshire conurbations. Beyond those, Britain is a country of medium-sized cities rather than a few giants — a pattern that distinguishes it from France or Spain.

Population growth is heavily concentrated. London, the East of England and parts of the South East have grown fastest, while several northern and coastal areas have grown slowly or declined. Coastal towns in particular have an older age profile and weaker economies, a pattern documented repeatedly by the Chief Medical Officer and others.

Around 83 per cent of the UK population lives in urban areas, but 'urban' in the British statistical sense includes a great many small towns — the country is less metropolitan than that figure suggests.

The UK's fertility rate has been below replacement since the early 1970s, so almost all population growth now comes from net migration. Both the level and the composition changed sharply after 2020, when free movement with the EU ended and a new points-based immigration system began.

The pattern reversed direction: EU migration fell substantially while non-EU migration rose, driven by international students, health and care worker visas, skilled worker routes and bespoke humanitarian schemes for Ukraine, Hong Kong British National (Overseas) status holders and Afghanistan.

Net migration reached record levels in the years after 2021 before falling as rules were tightened — restrictions on dependants for students and care workers, higher salary thresholds and a higher minimum income requirement for family visas. This is an unusually fast-moving policy area, and figures published even a year apart can differ enormously.

At the 2021 census in England and Wales, 16.8 per cent of residents were born outside the UK, the highest recorded. India, Poland, Pakistan, Romania and Ireland were the largest countries of birth.

At the 2021 census in England and Wales, 81.7 per cent of residents identified with a white ethnic group and 74.4 per cent specifically as 'White British', both down from 2011. Asian, Asian British and Asian Welsh groups were the largest minority category at 9.3 per cent, followed by Black, Black British, Black Welsh, Caribbean or African groups at 4.0 per cent. The share identifying with two or more ethnic groups continues to rise, particularly among younger age groups.

English is the main language for around 91 per cent of residents in England and Wales. Polish is the most common other main language, followed by Romanian, Punjabi and Urdu. Welsh is an official language in Wales, with around 538,000 speakers recorded at the 2021 census — a figure that fell from 2011 and prompted debate about the Welsh Government's target of a million speakers by 2050.

Scottish Gaelic is spoken by a small and geographically concentrated population, mainly in the Western Isles, and Irish and Ulster Scots have official recognition in Northern Ireland.

The religion question produced the most-reported result of the 2021 census. In England and Wales, 46.2 per cent described themselves as Christian — below half for the first time since the question was introduced — while 37.2 per cent reported no religion, up from 25.2 per cent in 2011. Muslims were 6.5 per cent, Hindus 1.7 per cent and Sikhs 0.9 per cent. Scotland's 2022 census showed a similar pattern, with more than half reporting no religion.

The median age is around 40 and rising. Roughly one in five people is aged 65 or over, and that share is projected to grow, which is the primary driver of long-term pressure on the NHS, social care and the state pension.

The state pension age is currently 66, rising to 67 between 2026 and 2028, with a further increase to 68 legislated for the 2040s and under periodic review.

Household composition has shifted steadily. Average household size has fallen below 2.4 people, and one-person households now make up roughly 30 per cent of all households — a change that by itself increases the number of homes needed at any given population.

Home ownership among younger adults has fallen sharply over three decades while remaining high among those over 65, producing the widest generational wealth divide in modern British history. The private rented sector roughly doubled in size between the early 2000s and the 2020s, and now houses about a fifth of households in England.